First description of natural Echinococcus multilocularis infections in chinchilla ( Chinchilla laniger ) and Prevost's squirrel ( Callosciurus prevostii borneoensis )

This report describes for the first time the occurrence of alveolar echinococcosis in two exotic rodent species in Europe. A pet chinchilla (Chinchilla laniger) was euthanized due to a painful enlargement of the abdominal cavity, and a Prevost's squirrel (Callosciurus prevostii borneoensis) was found dead in the enclosure of a zoo. At necropsy, extended liver lesions consisting of small vesicles and cysts were observed in the livers of both animals. Histological examination revealed that these cysts were composed of an outer, homogenous, eosinophilic layer and an inner, cellular germinal layer. The cysts from both animals contained numerous protoscolices. The morphological diagnosis of Echinococcus multilocularis metacestode infections was confirmed by molecular mean

Observations on the length of the intestinal tract of African Loxodonta africana (Blumenbach 1797) and Asian elephants Elephas maximus (Linné 1735)

The digestive tract of elephants is surprisingly short compared to other herbivorous mammals. However, measurements relating the length of the intestine to the body mass of the respective individual are rare. In this study, we report such data for an African elephant and an Asian elephant. Our data support the hypothesis that Asian elephants have a longer intestinal tract than their African counterparts. These findings are in accord with the observation of longer retention times and higher digestion coefficients in Asian as compared to African elephants. This difference between the species could be the reflection of slightly different ecological niches, with Asian elephants adapted to a natural diet with a higher proportion of gras

Fecal Glucocorticoid Measurements and Their Relation to Rearing, Behavior, and Environmental Factors in the Population of Pileated Gibbons ( Hylobates pileatus ) Held in European Zoos

Pileated gibbons (Hylobates pileatus) are rated as endangered according to the International Union of Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List. The captive population suffers from poor breeding success and is threatened to become overaged. Although several factors are likely to contribute to the poor breeding success, one in particular may be chronic stress associated with prolonged periods of high glucocorticoid (GC) output. We investigated fecal GC levels of pileated gibbons (Hylobates pileatus) and their relationship to specific life-history variables and environmental factors. After validation of an enzyme immunoassay for the measurement of 5-reduced 3α,11β-dihydroxy cortisol metabolites to assess GC output reliably in pileated gibbons, we collected fecal samples over several days from all 36 European adult pileated gibbons located in 11 institutions and compared GC levels to intrinsic individual parameters, husbandry, behavior, and breeding history. Age, sex, and origin (wild vs. captive born) had no effect on GC levels. However, unnaturally reared gibbons had higher GC levels and showed more behavioral abnormalities than parent-reared individuals. Further, nonreproducing gibbons living in a pair without infants had higher GC concentrations than gibbons living in a family, bachelor group, or as singletons. With respect to environmental factors, a large size of the inside enclosure and the existence of visual protection from visitors was associated with lower fecal GC output. The data indicate that rearing and housing conditions appear to correlate to GC levels in pileated gibbons housed under captive conditions. It is hoped this knowledge will support the future management of the species in captivity and thus lead to a more successful breeding of this endangered primat

Tuberculosis in Swiss captive Asian elephants: microevolution of Mycobacterium tuberculosis characterized by multilocus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis and whole-genome sequencingle-number tandem-repeat analysis and whole-genome sequencing

Zoonotic tuberculosis is a risk for human health, especially when animals are in close contact with humans. Mycobacterium tuberculosis was cultured from several organs, including lung tissue and gastric mucosa, of three captive elephants euthanized in a Swiss zoo. The elephants presented weight loss, weakness and exercise intolerance. Molecular characterization of the M. tuberculosis isolates by spoligotyping revealed an identical profile, suggesting a single source of infection. Multilocus variable-number of tandem-repeat analysis (MLVA) elucidated two divergent populations of bacteria and mixed infection in one elephant, suggesting either different transmission chains or prolonged infection over time. A total of eight M. tuberculosis isolates were subjected to whole-genome sequence (WGS) analysis, confirming a single source of infection and indicating the route of transmission between the three animals. Our findings also show that the methods currently used for epidemiological investigations of M. tuberculosis infections should be carefully applied on isolates from elephants. Moreover the importance of multiple sampling and analysis of within-host mycobacterial clonal populations for investigations of transmission is demonstrated

Identification of shedders of elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses among Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) in Switzerland

Elephants, particularly Asian (Elephas maximus), are threatened by lethal elephant hemorrhagic disease (EHD) due to elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses (EEHV). At least five of seven known EEHV types have been associated to EHD, with types 1, 4, and 5 predominantly affecting Asian elephants. In Switzerland, at least three Asian elephants have been lost due to EHD but nothing is known about the present EEHV1 circulation. Moreover, the prevalence of other EEHV types has never been assessed. Intermittent shedding of EEHV can be monitored through collecting trunk secretions and analyzing them by PCR methods that discriminate the different EEHV types. To identify EEHV shedders, seven of eight Asian elephants in a Swiss zoo were trained to provide trunk wash samples. These were collected at intervals over a period of four months and tested by PCR for presence of EEHV1 through 6. Moreover, the quality of each sample was assessed by testing for the elephant TNFalpha gene. Overall, 57% of the samples were valid with five of seven participating elephants identified as EEHV shedders. Two of those shed virus only once, whereas the other three, all closely related among each other, shed virus on multiple occasions. One of the frequent shedders had been in very close contact to all of the three EHD victims. Therefore, we speculate that this particular animal may represent the virus source in all three cases. However, when subtyping was conducted, the presently circulating virus was identified as EEHV1B, while the virus subtype causing EHD had been 1A in all three cases. In addition to four animals excreting EEHV1, a recently introduced animal was observed to shed EEHV3/4. We suggest that the policy of trunk washing to identify and characterize EEHV-shedders is to be endorsed in zoos with ongoing or planned elephant breeding programs

Iron regulation in elderly Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) chronically infected with mycobacterium tuberculosis

Restriction of nutrients to pathogens (nutritional immunity) is a critical innate immune response mechanism that operates when pathogens such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis have the potential to evade humoral immunity. Tuberculosis is of growing concern for zoological collections worldwide and is well-illustrated by infections of Asian and African elephants, where tuberculosis is difficult to diagnose. Here, we investigated hematological parameters and iron deposition in liver, lung, and spleen of three Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. For reference purposes, we analyzed tissue samples from control M. tuberculosis-negative elephants with and without evidence of inflammation and/or chronic disease. Molecular analyses of bacterial lesions of post mortally collected tissues confirmed M. tuberculosis infection in three elephants. DNA sequencing of the bacterial cultures demonstrated a single source of infection, most likely of human origin. In these elephants, we observed moderate microcytic anemia as well as liver (mild), lung (moderate) and spleen (severe) iron accumulation, the latter mainly occurring in macrophages. Macrophage iron sequestration in response to infection and inflammation is caused by inhibition of iron export via hepcidin-dependent and independent mechanisms. The hepatic mRNA levels of the iron-regulating hormone hepcidin were increased in only one control elephant suffering from chronic inflammation without mycobacterial infection. By contrast, all three tuberculosis-infected elephants showed low hepcidin mRNA levels in the liver and low serum hepcidin concentrations. In addition, hepatic ferroportin mRNA expression was high. This suggests that the hepcidin/ferroportin regulatory system aims to counteract iron restriction in splenic macrophages in M. tuberculosis infected elephants to provide iron for erythropoiesis and to limit iron availability for a pathogen that predominantly proliferates in macrophages. Tuberculosis infections appear to have lingered for more than 30 years in the three infected elephants, and decreased iron availability for mycobacterial proliferation may have forced the bacteria into a persistent, non-proliferative state. As a result, therapeutic iron substitution may not have been beneficial in these elephants, as this therapy may have enhanced progression of the infection

Clinical Chemistry and Haematology Values of a Captive Population of Humboldt Penguins (<i>Spheniscus humboldti</i>)

Reference intervals for clinical chemistry and haematology analytes are essential for the interpretation of blood results, but limited data are available for Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti) in zoological collections as well as in the wild. The aim of the present study was therefore to establish reference intervals for a series of clinical chemistry and haematology analytes in a single zoological population of Humboldt penguins. Furthermore, possible variations of the analytes influenced by the age and sex of the individuals were investigated. Lithium heparinized plasma and whole blood samples from 39 animals were analysed and statistically evaluated. The following clinical chemistry analytes were significantly higher in females: glutamate dehydrogenase (p = 0.0003), alanine transaminase (p = 0.0005), alkaline phosphatase (p = 0.0245), aspartate aminotransferase (p = 0.0043), creatine kinase (p = 0.0016), lactate dehydrogenase (p p = 0.0223), and sodium (p = 0.0415). No significant differences between males and females were found for any haematology analyte. Cholesterol (p = 0.0233; −0.39), white blood cell count (p = 0.0208; −0.40), and absolute heterophiles (p = 0.0148; −0.42) had significant negative correlations with the age of the penguins. The results indicate that the factors of sex and age should be considered when interpreting the results of haematological and clinical biochemistry assays, and further studies are needed to determine whether there are more differences in other age groups or seasons

Identification of shedders of elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses among Asian elephants (<i>Elephas maximus</i>) in Switzerland

<div><p>Elephants, particularly Asian (<i>Elephas maximus</i>), are threatened by lethal elephant hemorrhagic disease (EHD) due to elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses (EEHV). At least five of seven known EEHV types have been associated to EHD, with types 1, 4, and 5 predominantly affecting Asian elephants. In Switzerland, at least three Asian elephants have been lost due to EHD but nothing is known about the present EEHV1 circulation. Moreover, the prevalence of other EEHV types has never been assessed. Intermittent shedding of EEHV can be monitored through collecting trunk secretions and analyzing them by PCR methods that discriminate the different EEHV types. To identify EEHV shedders, seven of eight Asian elephants in a Swiss zoo were trained to provide trunk wash samples. These were collected at intervals over a period of four months and tested by PCR for presence of EEHV1 through 6. Moreover, the quality of each sample was assessed by testing for the elephant TNF-alpha gene. Overall, 57% of the samples were valid with five of seven participating elephants identified as EEHV shedders. Two of those shed virus only once, whereas the other three, all closely related among each other, shed virus on multiple occasions. One of the frequent shedders had been in very close contact to all of the three EHD victims. Therefore, we speculate that this particular animal may represent the virus source in all three cases. However, when subtyping was conducted, the presently circulating virus was identified as EEHV1B, while the virus subtype causing EHD had been 1A in all three cases. In addition to four animals excreting EEHV1, a recently introduced animal was observed to shed EEHV3/4. We suggest that the policy of trunk washing to identify and characterize EEHV-shedders is to be endorsed in zoos with ongoing or planned elephant breeding programs.</p></div

Recurrent tongue tip constriction in a captive giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla)

A male giant anteater (Myrmecophage tridactyla) was treated twice for tongue tip constrictions. Clinical signs were partial anorexia, soft stool, bleeding from the mouth, and intermittent lingual discomfort. In the first presentation, wood fibers constricting the distal part of the tongue were detected by endoscopy and were removed. In the second presentation, bands of collagenous fibers were identified and resected. Dietary elements were responsible for both cases: elongated wood fibers were present in peat, which was included as a supplement to improve stool consistency, and collagenous fibers originated from fascias of lean meat, which served as a protein source in this diet. Preventive measures included sieving of the peat to eliminate long fibers and grinding of the meat, respectively, prior to diet presentation. A homogenous diet, utilizing cellulose rather than peat and dry cat food rather than meat, will avoid tongue tip constriction as described in these cases

Primers and probes used in this study.

<p>Primers and probes used in this study.</p